Schlagwort-Archive: Stadtarchäologie

Building Activities as religious and political Agency in the Life of Bishop Otto I. of Bamberg

[1] “In this description, I desire to convey certain actions of the venerable Otto VIII, bishop of the sacrosanct Babenberg church, to posterity. […] Such as the monasteries constructed by him and […] other outstanding monuments of his remarkable labor, I intend to transmit to the knowledge of future generations through a true account.“[1]
This sentence comes from the work Relatio de piis operibus Ottonis Episcopis Bambergensis written around 1140. Although the focus in this document is primarily on the memoria of bishop Otto I, who died only one year before and was canonized already in 1189, it provides an unique insight into the bishop’s work in his diocese.

[2] Otto was not only an imperial politician, monastic reformer, and missionary, but also exercised significant regional influence on Bamberg’s urban development and the shaping of its basic structures up to the early modern period, in his role as territorial ruler of his ecclesiastical principalities.[2] As a result of his formative interventions, Otto came to be regarded early on as the second founder of Bamberg. His missionary approach was characterized by intense building activity as well.
This is the context to show the multidimensional impact of architecture and its different levels of utilization and symbolism. Furthermore, the building activity of bishop Otto I proves as a linking element in the enforcement of his agency both in Bamberg, his further dispersed holdings and in the territories of his mission of the Pomoran and Lutic people.[3]

Figure 1: Oldest depiction of Otto in the manuscript Msc.Patr.76 of the Bamberg State Library, which was probably created during Otto’s lifetime, licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0


Otto’s Influence on Bamberg

[3] With the founding of the diocese by emperor Henry II in 1007, Bamberg developed from a peripheral regional center to a central place in the Sacrum Imperium, namely the Holy Roman Empire.[4] Otto sought to expand on this path from 1102 onwards during his whole episcopate. The bishop brought to this position a broad knowledge of architecture and construction work, which he most likely had acquired while managing and supervising the building of Speyer Cathedral. He was able to demonstrate this knowledge in a variety of building activities in Bamberg.[5] Apparently Otto understood his extensive building activity in Bamberg as a way for steered settlement expansion and development.[6] The work of Stefan Pfaffenberger[7] provides therefore detailed insights into changes and the existence of early and high medieval urban structures.[8]

Perceiving Architecture

[4] Archaeological evidence of increased building activity during Otto´s episcopate was found within the different settlement quarters of Bamberg and in an ecclesiastical context at the Cathedral of St. Peter and St. George.[9] It reflects the prosperous conditions of the High Middle Ages and likely to a certain extent Otto’s reception of building activity as well. The structural changes at St. Michael’s Monastery following an earthquake in 1117 are especially noteworthy. These renovations not only enabled the continuation of monastic life, but manifested the changes that Bishop Otto had enforced with the introduction of the Hirsau Reform in 1112. The archaeological features of a water pipe were in particular both an infrastructural improvement and an architectural sign of the ability to return to the intended isolation and thus to the strict adherence to the Benedictine rule.[10] Otto becoming active in this way was not out of the ordinary as he partly renewed the churches of St. Stephan, St. Jakob and St. Gangolf in Bamberg and furthermore founded several monasteries through which he also expressed claims to sovereignty in dispersed holdings of Bamberg in other dioceses.[11]

[5] These examples show how Otto deliberately utilized architecture to express both religious convictions and his political agenda. Likewise on his missionary journeys Bishop Otto relied on the physically perceptible. To achieve his goals, he not only drew on the symbolism of patrocinia, but was also visibly appropriating the missionized space by building probably 14 churches[12] and creating references to the aura of existing sacred spaces of the former pagan faith.[13] In this case, it is obvious that Otto assigned a special significance to material manifestation in general and especially to the role of church buildings as community facilities and administrative centers.[14]

Expansion of Urban Space

[6] In addition to structural renewals and the expansion of central spots Bishop Otto also pursued urbanistic intentions such as the acquisition of a “forum”[15] between the arms of the river Regnitz. This market formed the basis of the island settlement, the so-called Inselstadt, and ultimately connected the settlement-structures of the so-called Theuerstadt east of the Regnitz and the mountain area in the west for the first time.[16] Archaeological evidence of the high medieval settlement at the later Inselstadt has been provided by non-ferrous metal slags and pottery from the early 12th century.[17] This coincides with the time of Otto of Bamberg’s episcopate and illustrates the first results of his ambitions to expand the settlement. Even though building projects like a stone arch bridge were only carried out after Otto’s death, his planned promotion of urban development was a prerequisite for the feasibility of subsequent arrangements.[18] The construction of representative stone buildings[19], the improvement of streets with oak planks in the Sandgebiet and the development of a uniform plot structure[20], although only dating to the period after Otto’s episcopate, nonetheless fundamentally changing Bamberg’s appearance, were presumably still driven by Otto’s effort.

Figure 2: Visualization of the spatial extent of verifiable building activities under Otto of Bamberg, based on the locations given in the doctoral thesis by A. Fink, Romanische Klosterkirchen des Heiligen Bischofs Otto von Bamberg (1102 – 1139) (Petersberg 2001) 210-217. Further informations about Otto´s castles (“munitiones”) were taken from Ed. O. Holder-Egger, Relatio de piis operibus Ottonis Episcopis Bambergensis, MGH SS 15/2 (Hannover 1888) 1164. Other references to chapels (“capellam”) from the Relatio were not included due to the largely unclear external impact. Map creation by L. Funke with QGIS based on Mapzen Global Terrain, licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.


The visual Impact of architectural Manifestations

[7] In summary, the ambitious actions that Otto of Bamberg carried out had a lasting effect on the infrastructural and urban development of the city. Bamberg was further overlooked by the churches and monasteries, which found distinct expression in Otto’s passion for erecting new towers visible from great distances.[21] While the written sources focused strongly on Otto’s involvement in these individual prestigious buildings[22], the archaeological findings not only provide the ability to assess and classify these mostly idealizing depictions but also demonstrate the far-reaching effects of his actions on the structures and development in the profane space. This insight is primarily based on numerous, but often small-scale rescue excavations, that offer over time the possibility of drawing macro level conclusions. Awareness of this is becoming increasingly important as the number of rescue excavations that need to be put to scientific use continues to grow.[23]  

[8] Comparing Otto’s building activities in Bamberg and his construction of missionary churches in Pomerania implies that Otto of Bamberg was well aware of the impact of architectural manifestations on the enforcement and consolidation of political as well as religious claims. Unlike his unsuccessful predecessor in the Pomeranian mission, Bernhard of Spain, who encouraged him to pursue a new approach, Otto integrated the construction of churches into his mission strategy.[24] The physical manifestation of the new religion was a central instrument of his actions. The church buildings functioned as places of ecclesiastical worship and were perceivable landmarks in the sphere of the newly Christianized.[25] As bishop, Otto held both religious and secular rule in his diocese of Bamberg, where he used his secular position with similar means of architectural appropriation to consolidate and expand the city.
Indeed, even beyond in neighboring dioceses, mainly in the territory of today’s Bavaria he acted as founder and renovator of distant monasteries.[26] In his time Otto of Bamberg was not alone in using visuality and architecture, as religious building activities were a central aspect of a bishop’s reputation. In a religious perception these building activities ensured his salvation and were an indicator of his charity, piety and his praise of God.[27] Therefore, the relatio, cited at the beginning, and Otto’s biographers – which later proved crucial for his canonization – emphasized the churches monasteries and other monuments built by Otto.[28]
Otto nevertheless stands out in terms of the scope of his activities. He clearly used the interconnections of religious and political effectiveness as well as administrative and infrastructure requirements through his building activity more extensively and successfully than almost anyone else in his time. The actual remains of buildings, initiated or realized by Otto along with urban developments visible in the archaeological record, are witnesses of this agency till the present day – in Pomerania as well as in Bamberg.


Das Essay ist auf https://amanzblog.hypotheses.org/ mit der CC-Lizenz CC BY erschienen.


[1]  „In hac descriptione, qua venerandi Ottonis octavi sacrosanctae Babenbergensis ecclesiae episcopi quaedam acta posteris insinuare desidero. [U]t cenobia ab ipso constructa et […] aliaque eximii laboris sui egregia monimenta ad noticiam posterorum vera relatione transmittam.” – Translation by the author, for the transcription and edition see Ed. O. Holder-Egger, Relatio de piis operibus Ottonis Episcopis Bambergensis, MGH SS 15/2 (Hannover 1888) 1156.

[2] Otto’s actions in world affairs at the time cf. H. Flachenecker, Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Person und Persönlichkeit, in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Eds.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee, Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 23–32, 25f. Otto is thus one of the few people of the High Middle Ages to whom a pictorial representation was dedicated during his lifetime. See Figure 1.

[3] On the concept of the second founder cf. S. Pfaffenberger, Bamberg zu Beginn des 12. Jahrhunderts – das Zeitalter Bischof Ottos I. aus archäologischer Sicht, in: M. Rębkowski – S. Rosik (Eds.), Biskup Otton z Bambergu i jego świat (Wrocław 2018) 157–186, 157.
There has been various research on the activities of Otto as an architect for instance A. Fink, Romanische Klosterkirchen des Heiligen Bischofs Otto von Bamberg (1102 – 1139) (Petersberg 2001).
Furthermore H. Flachenecker, Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Person und Persönlichkeit, in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Eds.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee, Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 23–32, 26ff.
The theory of Agency has only recently applied to historical research. For several case studies addressing this methodological approach cf. I. Epurescu-Pascovici, Human agency in medieval society, 1100-1450 (Woodbridge 2021).
For more information on the topic of different functions of architecture in the Middle Ages cf. M. Untermann, Abbild, Symbol, Repräsentation – Funktionen mittelalterlicher Architektur?, in: O. Wagener (Eds.), Symbole der Macht? Aspekte mittelalterlicher und frühneuzeitlicher Architektur, Beihefte zur Mediävistik 17 (2012) 15–32.

[4] About written and archaeological evidence of this development cf. T. Gunzelmann – S. Pfaffenberger, Die Stadt Kaiser Heinrichs II. – Bamberg im 11. Jahrhundert, in: P. Ruderich – T. Gunzelmann (Eds.), Die Kunstdenkmäler von Bayern. Stadt Bamberg 1 – Stadtdenkmal und Stadtlandschaft (Bamberg 2012) 186–192.

[5] For more information on Ottos career cf. S. Pfaffenberger, Aspekte der Stadtentwicklung Bambergs im frühen und hohen Mittelalter aus archäologischer Sicht, Veröffentlichungen des Stadtarchivs Bamberg 36 (Büchenbach 2020), 46.
Furthermore, on his influence at Speyer Cathedral see A. Fink, Romanische Klosterkirchen des Heiligen Bischofs Otto von Bamberg (1102 – 1139) (Petersberg 2001) 24–27.
For his impact on Bamberg Cathedral, see generally N. Lohwasser, Archäologische Forschungen zum Heinrichsdom – Fakten und Rätsel, in: C. Rolker (Eds.), Kaiser Heinrich II. Herrschaft, Handschriften und Heiligkeit im Mittelalter, Bamberger interdisziplinäre Mittelalterstudien Vorträge und Vorlesungen 10 (Bamberg 2024) 73–94.

[6] cf. S. Pfaffenberger, Aspekte der Stadtentwicklung Bambergs im frühen und hohen Mittelalter aus archäologischer Sicht, Veröffentlichungen des Stadtarchivs Bamberg 36 (Büchenbach 2020) 46 f.

[7] Stefan Pfaffenberger is the current city employed archeologist of Bamberg. Represented in this book with a detailed contribution.

[8] Further information on the state of Bamberg’s urban development in the late 11th century cf. T. Gunzelmann – S. Pfaffenberger, Die Stadt Kaiser Heinrichs II. – Bamberg im 11. Jahrhundert, in: P. Ruderich – T. Gunzelmann (Eds.), Die Kunstdenkmäler von Bayern. Stadt Bamberg 1 – Stadtdenkmal und Stadtlandschaft (Bamberg 2012) 182–211, 204–211.

[9] For more detailed information on the repair and extension the Bamberg Cathedral see N. Lohwasser, Archäologische Forschungen zum Heinrichsdom – Fakten und Rätsel, in: C. Rolker (Eds.), Kaiser Heinrich II. Herrschaft, Handschriften und Heiligkeit im Mittelalter, Bamberger interdisziplinäre Mittelalterstudien Vorträge und Vorlesungen 10 (Bamberg 2024) 73–94, 77–80.
For information about the settlement structure, see also S. Pfaffenberger, Bamberg zu Beginn des 12. Jahrhunderts – das Zeitalter Bischof Ottos I. aus archäologischer Sicht, in: M. Rębkowski – S. Rosik (Eds.), Biskup Otton z Bambergu i jego świat (Wrocław 2018) 157f.

[10] For further information S. Pfaffenberger, Aspekte der Stadtentwicklung Bambergs im frühen und hohen Mittelalter aus archäologischer Sicht, Veröffentlichungen des Stadtarchivs Bamberg 36 (Büchenbach 2020) 131.
The connection to the Hirsau Reform was also established directly in architectural references of the church building. Cf. A. Fink, Romanische Klosterkirchen des Heiligen Bischofs Otto von Bamberg (1102 – 1139) (Petersberg 2001) 90f.

[11] This policy of founding monasteries to secure power with a combination of administration and symbolic-architectural visibility can be clearly recognized in Otto’s work. Cf. A. Fink, Romanische Klosterkirchen des Heiligen Bischofs Otto von Bamberg (1102 – 1139) (Petersberg 2001) 16ff.
Summarizing ibid., 209.

[12] With reference to the allocation of mainly St. Peter, St. James and St. Mary patrocinia by Otto: H. Flachenecker, Bischof Otto von Bamberg und die Christianisierung der Pommern. Zu den Missionsaufgaben eines Bischofs im Hochmittelalter, in: C. Stiegemann – Kroker. Martin – W. Walter (Eds.), Credo – Christianisierung Europas im Mittelalter. Band 1: Essays (Petersberg 2013) 417–426, 422.

[13] cf. the Vita from Prüfening Abbey in Ed. L. Weinrich – J. Strzelczyk, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg, Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2017) 165.

[14] Specifically on the relationships between the individual church buildings as landscape markers and administrative centers cf. U. Müller, Von Oldenburg nach Lübeck – Mission, Glaubenswandel und die Institutionalisierung des Christentums vom 10. bis 13. Jahrhundert, in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Eds.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee, Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 211–232, 228 f. For a map of his verifiable building activity see Figure 2.

[15] Ed. O. Holder-Egger, Relatio de piis operibus Ottonis Episcopis Bambergensis, MGH SS 15/2 (Hannover 1888) 1164.

[16] More general information on urban development and urbanization in the 12th century cf. D. Nicholas, Lords, Markets, Communities. The Urban Revolution of the Twelfth Century, in: T. F. X. Noble – J. H. van Engen (Hrsg.), European transformations. The long twelfth century, Notre Dame conferences in medieval studies (Notre Dame 2012) 229–232.

[17] On the various features and finds from the excavations at Maximiliansplatz 14 and Hellerstraße 13 cf. S. Pfaffenberger, Aspekte der Stadtentwicklung Bambergs im frühen und hohen Mittelalter aus archäologischer Sicht, Veröffentlichungen des Stadtarchivs Bamberg 36 (Büchenbach 2020) 213–217.

[18] cf. S. Pfaffenberger, Bamberg zu Beginn des 12. Jahrhunderts – das Zeitalter Bischof Ottos I. aus archäologischer Sicht, in: M. Rębkowski – S. Rosik (Eds.), Biskup Otton z Bambergu i jego świat (Wrocław 2018) 157–186, 168–170.
Further reading cf. S. Pfaffenberger, Aspekte der Stadtentwicklung Bambergs im frühen und hohen Mittelalter aus archäologischer Sicht, Veröffentlichungen des Stadtarchivs Bamberg 36 (Büchenbach 2020) 194–223.
In recognition of Otto’s influence Cf. ibid. 294.

[19] About secular stone buildings, see, for example Karolinenstraße 17 (1187 dendrochronologically dated) or Karolinenstraße 8 in S. Pfaffenberger, Aspekte der Stadtentwicklung Bambergs im frühen und hohen Mittelalter aus archäologischer Sicht, Veröffentlichungen des Stadtarchivs Bamberg 36 (Büchenbach 2020) 170–178.

[20] cf. S. Pfaffenberger, Bamberg zu Beginn des 12. Jahrhunderts – das Zeitalter Bischof Ottos I. aus archäologischer Sicht, in: M. Rębkowski – S. Rosik (Eds.), Biskup Otton z Bambergu i jego świat (Wrocław 2018) 157–186, 171 f. Further information on excavations in Obere Königstraße cf. S. Pfaffenberger, Aspekte der Stadtentwicklung Bambergs im frühen und hohen Mittelalter aus archäologischer Sicht. Veröffentlichungen des Stadtarchivs Bamberg 36 (Büchenbach 2020) 250–262.

[21] Explicit mentions of the building and renewal of church towers can be found in the Vita of Prüfening Abbey. (Ed. L. Weinrich – J. Strzelczyk, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg, Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2017) 139–141).
The interpretation of the towers as a distinguishing feature of Otto’s building activity can be found in A. Fink, Romanische Klosterkirchen des Heiligen Bischofs Otto von Bamberg (1102 – 1139) (Petersberg 2001) 196 f.

[22] Due to “genre-immanent intentions”. Cf. H. Flachenecker, Bischof Otto von Bamberg und die Christianisierung der Pommern. Zu den Missionsaufgaben eines Bischofs im Hochmittelalter, in: C. Stiegemann – Kroker. Martin – W. Walter (Eds.), Credo – Christianisierung Europas im Mittelalter. Band 1: Essays (Petersberg 2013) 417–426, 417.

[23] Further information on the opportunities and challenges of „urban archaeology“ cf. P. Belford – J. Bouwmeester, Introduction. issues, principles and practice, in: P. Belford – J. Bouwmeester (Eds.), Managing archaeology in dynamic urban centres (Leiden 2020) 8–14.

[24] cf. S. Rosik, Die Strategie und Praxis der Mission Bischof Ottos von Bamberg in Pommern, in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Eds.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee, Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 33–38, 34.

[25] For more information on Otto’s missionary strategy in Pomerania cf. F. Biermann – W. Wenzel, Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern – die Missionsreisen und ihre Wirkung im archäologischen Bild, in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Eds.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee, Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 97–148, 101 f.

[26] An illustration of the far-reaching founding and building activity is covered by A. Fink, Romanische Klosterkirchen des Heiligen Bischofs Otto von Bamberg (1102 – 1139) (Petersberg 2001) 13.

[27] Fundamental on this topic worked W. Giese, Zur Bautätigkeit von Bischöfen und Äbten des 10. bis 12. Jahrhunderts, Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters 1982/38, 388–438.
See also A. Fink, Romanische Klosterkirchen des Heiligen Bischofs Otto von Bamberg (1102 – 1139) (Petersberg 2001) 19–22.
The emphasis on Otto’s building and founding activities as a religious act with the aim of caritas is found above all in the Vitae. Cf. H. Flachenecker, Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Person und Persönlichkeit. In: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Eds.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee, Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 23–32, 27 f.

[28] For a summary of the biographers and Vitae, see A. Fink, Romanische Klosterkirchen des Heiligen Bischofs Otto von Bamberg (1102 – 1139) (Petersberg 2001) 23f.

Otto of Bamberg’s church foundations in Szczecin

[1] Three famous life descriptions report on the bishops missionary journeys.[1] They tell us that Bishop Otto of Bamberg founded two churches in Szczecin on his first missionary journey in 1124/25 in todays Western Pomerania.
These three texts belong to the genus of the vitae. Nevertheless, they are not saints’ vitae in the narrower sense, but they are already interspersed with hagiographic elements.[2] Therefore we can’t exclude exaggerations to emphasise Otto’s missionary successes.[3] Though, in the case of the two Szczecin churches, archaeology can verify the written record.[4]

Saint Peter and Paul’s Church

[2] In Otto’s time, Szczecin was a Slavic castle town consisting of a core, an outer castle and surrounding unfortified settlements. At the time, the complex had a dominant position in the region and was able to maintain its independence from the Pomeranian duke.[5] This social and political position prompted the author of the Vita Pruefeningensis to describe Szczecin as “tocius provinciae metropolis“.[6]
If the Vita Pruefeningensis can be believed, Otto might have built churches in Szczecin, because he focused his activities on the most important places.[7]

[3] Let’s take a closer look at one of the buildings mentioned in the written sources. Various historical accounts were made. The vita written by Ebo reports that Otto had built a church in honour of St. Peter.[8] However, the author of the Vita Pruefeningensis mentions even two patron saints, St. Peter and St. Paul.[9]
In fact, there is still a church of Saint Peter and Paul in Szczecin to this day. It is a Gothic building from the 15th century.

[4] There are various indications that this church can be regarded as the successor to Otto’s building. The first indication arises from the patrocinia of the church. A continuity of the patron saint can also be seen in other churches founded by Otto in Pomerania right up to the present day.[10]
The second indication results from the location of the church. The vitae describe the location of the church as being outside the walls of Szczecin.[11] Fittingly, today’s Saint Peter and St Paul’s Church is located outside the formerly existing Slavic castle rampart. Otto regularly chose this location when founding churches on his mission in Pomerania.[12]
The reasons for this could be found both in a deliberate new Christian beginning outside the – from Otto’s perspective – “paganised” soil of the city and in the fact that the bishop did not have to demolish any existing buildings in order to erect the church. In this way, he also avoided resentment against his mission as Biermann suggests.[13] However, the choice of location could also have to do with the accessibility of the building for a wider public.[14]
The last point in favour of the 15th century church being a successor building is that it is situated on a hill.[15] Here too, comparison with other foundations by Otto shows that he built many of his churches in Pomerania on hills.[16] However, final proof through archaeological excavations in the church is still pending.

Saint Adalbert’s Church

[5] Otto of Bamberg’s second foundation in what is now Szczecin and which we know from the vitae, is a church dedicated to St. Adalbert.[17] The localisation of this building proved to be much more difficult for researchers for a long time. This was initially due to the fact that the vitae report the location differently. According to Herbord, it stood on Szczecin’s market square.[18] In contrast, Ebo locates the church on the Triglav hill.[19] The Triglav hill is considered to be today’s Castle Hill.[20]
Based on the location described by Herbord, older research has attempted to locate Saint Adalbert’s Church on Szczecin’s market square as the predecessor of Saint Nicholas’ Church, which burnt down in the early 19th century.[21] However, excavations have since proved that the Slavic rampart ran across that place in Otto’s time. Thus, Otto could not have founded a church on this site.[22]

[6] There are attempts to reconcile the two seemingly contradictory passages in the vitae. Research has emphasised that the meeting places of the Slavs were often located near their temples.[23] When Herbord speaks of the “forum”, he could therefore referring to the square in front of the Triglav temple, and both places would describe the same location, today’s Castle Hill.[24]

[7] Results of an archaeological excavation on Castle Hill have not refuted this interpretation. Moreover, a building structure came to light that was orientated in a west-east direction and appeared to have had a layout with an apse (see fig. 1). The building dates back to the early 12th century according to research.[25]
It was probably a post and beam construction on a stone foundation, which was lined with planks.[26] This finding is interpreted in the literature with the backing of various arguments as archaeological remains of the Saint Adalbert Church mentioned in the vitae. In particular, it is emphasised that it is clearly a church due to the shape of the building.[27]

[8] Unfortunately, the archaeological findings suggest that the found building burnt down just a few decades after Otto’s missionary journey. According to the determination of the period undertaken by the archaeologists this must have happened in the second half of the 12th century.[28] Nevertheless, this observation allows us to assign the probable church building to the early phase of Christianity in Pomerania.

[9] It should be noted that the half-timbered construction with a stone foundation also suggests − without wanting to take up the highly problematic ethnic interpretation of archaeological findings from the first half of the 20th century[29] − influences from outside the local Slavic building culture.[30] In the Slavic cultural sphere of early 12th century one might have expected log buildings or, in the region south of the Baltic coast, wattle and daub structures.[31] Whereas, the half-timbered construction appears to support the account that Otto of Bamberg brought craftsmen with him.[32]

The few photos, drawings and descriptions available to the author make further interpretations regarding the actual appearance of the assumed Saint Adalbert church difficult, though.[33]

Concluding remarks

[10] It was shown to what extent archaeology has already been able to make its contribution to the field of the so-called Otto research. It seems more than likely that the remains of Saint Adalbert’s Church were discovered in the area of today’s castle courtyard. Furthermore, it was shown that Szczecin’s Saint Peter and Paul’s Church seems to be a site where excavations would be promising.
Unfortunately, archaeological research often means the destruction of the structures under excavation. In order to preserve historically valuable relics for future generations with better archaeological methods, today’s researchers are obliged to proceed with a sense of proportion.[34] Nevertheless, in case of the Otto research the potential seems tempting. Especially in the light of a viewing of Otto as a link in the history of two present-day countries with a difficult past. The study of Christianisation is a broad field that still offers many opportunities for new research.

Fig. 1: The probable remains of Saint Adalbert’s Church and the foundations of 14th century Ottenkirche in the area of today’s castle according to M. Dworaczyk[35] and J. Nekanda-Trepka[36] (J. Jakob; License CC BY).

Das Essay ist auf https://amanzblog.hypotheses.org/ mit der CC-Lizenz CC BY erschienen.


[1] The Vita written by Ebo (Vita Ottonis episcopi Bambergensis = Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg. Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 192–270.), the Vita written by Herbord (Dialogus de vita s. Ottonis = Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg. Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 272–493.) and the Vita from Prüfening Abbey (Vita Ottonis ep. Bambergensis = Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg. Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 120–191.).

[2] H. Flachenecker, Bischof Otto von Bamberg – Person und Persönlichkeit, in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Hrsg.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 23–32, 23; J. Petersohn, Otto von Bamberg und seine Biographen. Grundformen und Entwicklung des Ottobildes im hohen und späten Mittelalter. Zeitschr. Bayer. Landesgesch. 43, 1980, 3–27, 7–8.

[3] F. Biermann, Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern – die Missionsreisen in Pommern und ihre Wirkung im archäologischen Bild, in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Hrsg.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 97–147, 98–99.

[4] F. Biermann, Die Kirchen des Bischofs Otto von Bamberg in Pommern – ein Beitrag zur Frühgeschichte der Kirche St. Paul in Usedom und zur Lage der missionszeitlichen Sakralbauten im Odermündungsgebiet. In: F. Biermann – M. Schneider – T. Terberger (Hrsg.), Pfarrkirchen in den Städten des Hanseraums. Beiträge eines Kolloquiums vo 10. bis 13. Dezember 2003 in der Hansestadt Stralsund (Rahden 2006) 21–37, 30. (Status before the excavations on the Schlossberg); For the mutual confirmation of the vitae and the archaeological sources, see: F. Biermann, Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern – die Missionsreisen in Pommern und ihre Wirkung im archäologischen Bild, in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Hrsg.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 97–147, 98–100.

[5] M. Rębkowski, Die Christianisierung Pommerns. Eine archäologische Studie. Universitätsforschungen zur Prähistorischen Archäologie 197 (Bonn 2011) 22–23.

[6] The Vita from Prüfening Abbey II.7 (Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg. Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 154).

[7] F. Biermann, Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern – die Missionsreisen in Pommern und ihre Wirkung im archäologischen Bild, in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Hrsg.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 97–147, 109.

[8] “alia extra civitatis menia in veneratione sancti Petri erant locate”, The Vita written by Ebo III.1 (Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg. Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 242).

[9] “Alteram quoque ante portam civitatis eiusdem in honore beatorum apostolorum Petri et Pauli construxit et consecravit ecclesiam.”, The Vita from Prüfening Abbey III.13 (Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg. Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 160).

[10] F. Biermann, Die Kirchen des Bischofs Otto von Bamberg in Pommern – ein Beitrag zur Frühgeschichte der Kirche St. Paul in Usedom und zur Lage der missionszeitlichen Sakralbauten im Odermündungsgebiet, in: F. Biermann – M. Schneider – T. Terberger (Hrsg.), Pfarrkirchen in den Städten des Hanseraums. Beiträge eines Kolloquiums vom 10. bis 13. Dezember 2003 in der Hansestadt Stralsund (Rahden 2006) 21–37, 30.

[11] “ecclesiam beatorum apostolorum, quam ante portam civitatis eiusdem ipse construxera”, The Vita from Prüfening Abbey III.7 (Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg. Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 178).

[12] F. Biermann, Die Kirchen des Bischofs Otto von Bamberg in Pommern – ein Beitrag zur Frühgeschichte der Kirche St. Paul in Usedom und zur Lage der missionszeitlichen Sakralbauten im Odermündungsgebiet, in: F. Biermann – M. Schneider – T. Terberger (Hrsg.), Pfarrkirchen in den Städten des Hanseraums. Beiträge eines Kolloquiums vo 10. bis 13. Dezember 2003 in der Hansestadt Stralsund (Rahden 2006) 21–37, 30.

[13] ibid., 32.

[14] Referring to Kamień Pomorski: M. Rębkowski, Die Christianisierung Pommerns. Eine archäologische Studie. Universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie 197 (Bonn 2011) 22.

[15] ibid., 23.

[16] F. Biermann, Die Kirchen des Bischofs Otto von Bamberg in Pommern – ein Beitrag zur Frühgeschichte der Kirche St. Paul in Usedom und zur Lage der missionszeitlichen Sakralbauten im Odermündungsgebiet, in: F. Biermann – M. Schneider – T. Terberger (Hrsg.), Pfarrkirchen in den Städten des Hanseraums. Beiträge eines Kolloquiums vom 10. bis 13. Dezember 2003 in der Hansestadt Stralsund (Rahden 2006) 21–37, 32.

[17] The Vita written by Ebo III.1 (Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg. Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 242); The Vita from Prüfening Abbey II.13 (Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg. Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 160).

[18] “in medio foro Stetinensi“, The Vita written by Herbord II.36 (Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg. Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 408).

[19] “in monte Trigelawi“, The Vita written by Ebo III.1 (Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg. Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 242).

[20] L. Słupecki, Slavonic pagan sanctuaries (Warsaw 1984) 74.

[21] For example M. Wehrmann, Geschichte der Stadt Stettin (Stettin 1911; Unveränderter Nachdruck Augsburg 1993) 14.

[22] M. Dworaczyk, Die Adalbertkirche in Stettin (Szczecin), in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Hrsg.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 163–170, 163.

[23] L. Słupecki, Slavonic pagan sanctuaries (Warsaw 1984) 79–80.

[24] M. Dworaczyk, Die Adalbertkirche in Stettin (Szczecin). In: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Hrsg.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 163–170, 169.

[25] ibid., 163–164.

[26] ibid., 163–167.

[27] ibid., 167.

[28] ibid., 163–164.

[29] On the problems with such interpretations in the region of Western Pomerania see: F. Biermann, Wollin – Bilder und Dokumente der Vorkriegsgrabungen in der Sammlung vorgeschichtlicher Altertümer der Universität Greifswald, in: F. Biermann – T. Kersting – A. Klammt (Hg.), Burg Herrschaft und Zentralörtlichkeit im nördlichen westslawischen Raum. Beiträge der Sektion zur slawischen Frühgeschichte der 23. Jahrestagung des Mittel- und Ostdeutschen Verbandes für Altertumsforschung in Halle (Saale), 19.-21. März 2018. Beiträge zur Ur- und Frühgeschichte Mitteleuropas 92 (Langenweissbach 2020) 51–83, 66–71.

[30] M. Dworaczyk, Die Adalbertkirche in Stettin (Szczecin), in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Hrsg.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 163–170, 167; M. Rębkowski, The mission of Bishop Otto of Bamberg and its consequences, in: S. Rosik (Hrsg.), Europe reaches the Baltic. Poland and Pomerania in the Shaping of European Civilization (10th – 12th Centuries). Scripta Historica Europaea 6 (Wrocław 2020) 383–389, 387.

[31] S. Brather, Archäologie der westlichen Slawen. Siedlung, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft im früh- und hochmittelalterlichen Ostmitteleuropa. Ergänzungsbände zum Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde 61 (Berlin 2008), 98–104.

[32] M. Dworaczyk, Die Adalbertkirche in Stettin (Szczecin), in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Hrsg.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 163–170, 167.

[33] M. Dworaczyk, Die Adalbertkirche in Stettin (Szczecin), in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Hrsg.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 163–170.

[34] J. Kunow – M. M. Rind, Archäologische Denkmalpflege. Theorie – Praxis – Berufsfelder. Public History – Geschichte in der Praxis 7 (Tübingen 2022) 17.

[35] M. Dworaczyk, Die Adalbertkirche in Stettin (Szczecin), in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Hrsg.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 163–170, 166 Abb. 3.

[36] Encyklopedia Szczecina (2015) 1252–1257 s. v. Zamek Książąt Pomorskich (J. Nekanda-Trepka).

Churches built by Bamberg´s bishop Otto I. at the Baltic coast: A brief commentary on patrocinia, presumed locations and possible site continuities


Introduction

[1] Through his two missionary journeys in the years 1124/25 and 1128, Bishop Otto of Bamberg propelled the Christianisation of the settlement areas of the Pomoran and Lutic people.[1]
He was not the first missionary but has sustainably driven forward Christianity alongside other historical figures.[2] Therefore, the Bamberg bishop is attracting curiosity among scientists and the public, not only in Germany, but also in present-day Poland.
Otto of Bamberg founded at least 14 churches in the territories of the aforementioned Slavic tribes. These churches were not just intended to celebrate Mass during Otto´s travels. However, this impression could be gained by studying the written records, which report a simple construction method for these buildings.[3] Yet further information from written sources and modern research indicates that the church sites were chosen as landmarks to consolidate Christianity in the long term.[4]

[2] As archaeological excavations in the matter of Otto have taken place only at a few sites,[5] the following outline of the churches founded by the bishop is mainly based on written sources.[6]
Our attention is especially drawn to the patrocinia, the presumed locations and possible site continuities. This field of research is of particular interest for archaeologists, as not all the locations of the churches have been identified yet.


Geographical Context

[3] The first missionary journey was conducted by Bishop Otto of Bamberg in 1124/1125. He visited nine places according to written sources: Pyrzyce, Kamień Pomorski, Szczecin, Wolin, Lubin, „Gridiz“ (location very vaguely determined), „Cloden“ (today presumably Kłodkowo), Budzistowo (Kolberg-Altstadt) and Białogard. Otto founded at least a total of eleven churches during this venture.[7]

[4] Otto´s second missionary journey in 1128 took him to the left bank of the Oder, a region that is part of Germany today. He is supposed to have proselytised the Slavs, supported by the construction of churches in three places there, namely Usedom, Wolgast and Gützkow (see Fig. 1).[8]

Fig. 1: Missionary sites, where Otto of Bamberg consecrated at least one church
(Map by P. Siedschlag, generated with QGIS; License CC BY).


The Patrocinia

[5] Patrocinia describe the protection of a saint over a church building, diocese, town or similar consecrated to him or her. When a church is consecrated, it is assigned a patrocinium. The patrocinium is rarely changed.[9]

[6] The overview of the patrocinia of the aforementioned 14 churches built by bishop Otto I can be found in the catalouge at the end of the article.
In most cases of the patrocinia, it was possible to cite one of the three oldest descriptions of Otto´s life, dating back almost to Otto´s lifetime.[10]
In the cases of five patrocinia (cf. catalogue entries in italics), reference is made to secondary literature, as the aforementioned life descriptions do not provide information. Here, the authors rely on younger sources than the life descriptions and/or refer to various analogies that suggest that the patrocinia listed are plausible.
In two cases, the patrocinium is no longer known and cannot be deduced.


Some Patrocinia on closer Inspection

[7] Especially interesting is the patrocinium of St. Adalbert. He must have been of great significance to Otto, as he even chose this patron saint twice.
Therefore, it is not surprising that St. Adalbert is regarded as Otto of Bamberg´s missionary role model.[11] He missioned the Prussians and died a martyr´s death in the process.[12]

[8] Otto had a special affinity for the Bamberg monastery of Michelsberg,[13] which was dedicated to the patronage of the Archangel.
Within Christian tradition, the Archangel holds significance, safeguarding the faithful throughout their earthly existence and guiding their souls to paradise following their demise.[14] Of course, this layer of meaning may have contributed to Otto´s choice as well.

[9] The patrocinia of St. Peter and St. Paul could refer to Rome.[15] The prevalence of these two saints among Otto´s missionary churches is conspicuous, provided the deduction of the patrocinia in case of the churches in Usedom and Wolgast is correct (cf. catalogue).
St. Peter is one of the twelve apostles, and what seems particularly striking is that he protects (among others) Bamberg Cathedral. Obviously, the intention here was to create parallels to Bamberg.[16]
Fittingly, St. Paul is understood to be one of the first Christian missionaries.[17]

[10] Clearly, Otto deliberately created references through his choice of the patrocinia.
There are different layers of meaning and depending on our perspective we may understand Otto´s choices differently. Research has found that some might have reflected taking a political stance.[18]


Presumed Locations and possible Site Continuities

[11] Otto´s activities have not yet been researched exhaustively and major uncertainties exist. Hence, there is still a lot work to be done. This becomes clear looking at some of Otto church sites in more detail:

[12] For example, little is known about Otto´s church buildings in Kamień Pomorski. The aforementioned three oldest life descriptions of Otto do not provide information on patrocinia or exact locations.
Moreover, the statements regarding the number of the founded churches are inconsistent. The foundation of several churches, as written by Ebo of Michelsberg, rather than only one church, appears to be correct as indicated below:[19]
The location of the current Church of the assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary is widely taken into consideration. According to the archaeologist Marian Rębkowski, this speculation is supported by the fact that the Otto-era building at this exact spot would have been within the core area of the stronghold. Only a second church would have been accessible to the inhabitants of the outer baileys.[20]
A church that is considered the successor building based on spatial observations is not mentioned in written sources until the end of the 13th century.[21]

[13] The church at Lubin is particularly noteworthy as there are in fact remains found during excavations between 2008 and 2011. They are situated in the area of the stronghold and settlement complex and are likely to be identified as one of Otto´s church buildings.
Factors such as the east-west orientation and a possible rectangular choir on the east side are decisive in identifying it as a Christian church. The discovery of burials, which can be regarded as part of a church cemetery based on their orientation, further supports this interpretation.[22]
The excavation also allowed the possible, but not precise, reconstruction of the appearance of the church.[23]

[14] One of the final missionary destinations of the bishop´s first mission journey was a stronghold and settlement complex beneath present-day Budzistowo, a predecessor settlement of Kołobrzeg. The stronghold and settlement complex of Otto´s era was an economically significant centre of settlement activity on the banks of the Persante River.
Otto consecrated a Marian church there,[24] in which, according to written sources, one of Otto´s companions, Deacon Herman, was buried after drowning in the Persante.[25]
We know from written sources that after the relocation of Kołobrzeg, Otto´s Marian church was converted into a collegiate church. Benedictine nuns were settled here in 1277. A charter from 1278 locates the Benedictine monastery outside the stronghold. Researchers believe the St. Mary´s Church could have been in the outer bailey to the north of the stronghold.[26]
The monastery no longer exists. No archaeological excavations on the grounds of the demolished monastery have been carried out so far.


Conclusion

[15] In conclusion, despite not knowing all the churches´ locations for certain, we can still assume possible site continuities on the basis of spatial observations, consultation of written sources and archaeological excavations (cf. catalogue).

[16] For example, churches with certain patrocinia were sometimes built in typical locations: Most likely in honour of St. Michael, the Wolin church is built on a hill.[27] Maybe in honour of St. Nicholas, a patron saint of the seafarers,[28] the Lubin church overlooked the Szczecin Lagoon. A church in honour of St. Paul forms a fitting pair with one in honour of St. Peter.

[17] Learning more about the location of Otto´s churches has many aspects. It is important to be aware that understanding the pattern in the choice of location for churches helps to find undiscovered remains.
Nevertheless, today´s archaeologists do not aim for excavations, as excavations irreversibly destroy the original archaeological context. Technology and archaeological procedures are constantly evolving, suggesting that there will be likely better research methods in the future. Thus, excavations have to be conducted only after careful considerations. However, as Otto´s churches are to this day located in city centers, they may be threatened by construction work and the subsequent destruction of the archaeological sources.

[18] In the future, the church sites will presumably provide plenty information to answer questions regarding Otto´s missionary strategy or the material culture of his era.















Fig. 2: Saint Peter and Paul´s Church in Szczecin (P. Siedschlag; License CC BY).

 















Fig. 3: Memorial of St. George´s Church (P. Siedschlag; License CC BY).

 


Catalogue

The following catalogue offers information that may help to answer the question of whether we can assume that the locations of the churches have been identified.
Place names in quotation marks are directly taken from written sources.[29]
Entries in italics indicate that the information on the patrocinium comes from secondary literature and not from the aforementioned life descriptions.
In the cases of Szczecin and Wolin, the life descriptions mention two churches in clarity. For this reason, two patrocinia and two churches can be found under each of these two place names.


First missionary journey

Pyrzyce:
Patrocinium: unknown[30]

There are indications such as spatial observations and the later presence of an Augustinian monastery that suggest a specific location.[31]

Kamień Pomorski:
Patrocinium: Mother Mary[32]

→ Saint Mary´s Church
There are indications that today´s Roman Catholic Church of the assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary could be a successor building to an Otto-era church. These indications include spatial observations and a written source that mentions a Saint Mary´s Church already at the end of the 13th century.[33]

Szczecin:
Patrocinia: St. Peter and St. Paul[34]; St. Adalbert[35]

→ Saint Peter and Paul´s Church
The site is probably marked by a still existing church building from the 14th/15th century, dedicated to St. Peter and St. Paul. The written record and spatial observations support this thesis.[36]

See fig. 2

→ Saint Adalbert´s Church
It is possible that remains of Saint Adalbert´s Church may have come to the surface during excavations.[37]

Wolin:
Patroncinia: Archangel Michael[38]; St. Adalbert and St. George[39]

→ Saint Michael´s Church
There are indications such as spatial observations, reports of building remains[40] and the presence of inhumation burials that suggest a certain location.[41]

→ Saint Adalbert and George´s Church
The location of the church is a matter of dispute. Older research assumes the church to be beneath St. George´s, which was destroyed in the Second World War.[42]

See fig. 3

Lubin:
Patrocinium: St. Nicholas[43]

→ Saint Nicholas´ Church
It is possible that remains of Saint Nicholas´ Church may have come to the surface during excavations.[44]

“Gridiz”/“Gradicia”:
Patrocinium: unknown[45]

Even the settlement in which Otto is believed to have stayed, according to written sources, has not yet been identified with certainty. Gartz an der Oder is considered the most likely place of location.[46]

“Cloden” (Kłodkowo):
Patrocinium: Holy Cross[47]

→ Holy Cross Church
The settlement in which Otto is believed to have stayed, according to written sources, has been identified with some certainty as today´s Kłodkowo.[48] The location of the church consecrated by Otto is unspecified.[49]

Budzistowo:
Patrocinium: Mother Mary[50]

→ Saint Mary´s Church
There are indications such as spatial observations, written sources and the later presence of a Benedictine monastery that suggest a specific location.[51]

Białogard:
Patrocinium: All Saints[52]

→ All Saints´ Church
The location of the church consecrated by Otto is unspecified.[53]


Second missionary journey

Usedom:
Patrocinium: St. Paul[54]

→ Saint Paul´s Church
The location of the church may well be identified by a study of written sources, spatial observations and an archaeologically excavated burial site.[55]

Wolgast:
Patrocinium: St. Peter[56]

→ Saint Peter´s Church
The site is probably marked by a still-existing successor building, dedicated to St. Peter. The written record, spatial observations and inhumation burials that have come to light support this thesis.[57]

Gützkow:
Patrocinium: St. Nicholas[58]

Saint Nicholas´ Church
The site is probably marked by a still-existing successor building, dedicated to St. Nicholas. The written record, spatial observations and an archaeologically excavated burial site support this thesis.[59]

 

Das Essay ist auf https://amanzblog.hypotheses.org/ mit der CC-Lizenz CC BY erschienen.


[1] M. Rębkowski, The mission of Bishop Otto of Bamberg and its consequences, in: S. Rosik (Eds.), Europe reaches the Baltic. Poland and Pomerania in the Shaping of European Civilization (10th-12th Centuries). Scripta Historica Europaea 6 (Wrocław 2020) 383–389, here 383

[2] For example, Otto´s second missionary journey took place at the behest of Wartisław I., founder of the Griffin dynasty.
C.f. O. Auge, Agieren im Windschatten mächtiger Nachbarn – zu den Handlungsspielräumen der frühen Greifenherzöge im 12. Jahrhundert, Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee, in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Eds.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 69–81, 70–71.

[3] The Vita from Prüfening Abbey II.17 (Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg, Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 165).

[4] F. Biermann, Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern – die Missionsreisen und ihre Wirkung im archäologischen Bild, in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Eds.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee. Beiträge einer Tagung aus Anlass des 875. Todestages des Pommernmissionars vom 27. bis 29. Juni 2014 in Greifswald. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 97–147, 102.

[5] cf. F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Eds.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee. Beiträge einer Tagung aus Anlass des 875. Todestages des Pommernmissionars vom 27. bis 29. Juni 2014 in Greifswald. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017).

[6] For example, compare the three descriptions of Otto´s life as can be found in
Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg. Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005).

[7] cf. M. Rębkowski, Archäologische Zeugen der ersten Missionsreise Bischof Ottos in Pommern, in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Eds.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee. Beiträge einer Tagung aus Anlass des 875. Todestages des Pommernmissionars vom 27. bis 29. Juni 2014 in Greifswald. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 149–162, 150 Abb. 1.

[8] F. Biermann, Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern − die Missionsreisen und ihre Wirkung im archäologischen Bild, in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Eds.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee, Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 97–147, 98 Abb. 1.

[9] Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein online (eHLFL) (2011) s. v. Patrozinium (B. Vogt)
<https://historisches-lexikon.li/Patrozinium> (28.11.2023).

[10] The Vita written by Ebo: Vita Ottonis episcopi Bambergensis (1150−1159); The Vita written by Herbord: Dialogus de vita s. Ottonis (1159); The Vita from the Prüfening Abbey: Vita Ottonis ep. Bambergensis (1140−1146).

[11] J. Petersohn, Der südliche Ostseeraum im kirchlich-politischen Kräftespiels des Reichs, Polens und Dänemarks vom 10. bis 13. Jahrhundert (Köln 1979) 254.

[12] N. Buske, Bischof Otto I. von Bamberg. Beginn der Christianisierung des Peenegebietes (Rostock 1977) 5.

[13] J. Petersohn, Der südliche Ostseeraum im kirchlich-politischen Kräftespiels des Reichs, Polens und Dänemarks vom 10. bis 13. Jahrhundert (Köln 1979) 237.

[14] A. Heinz, Lebendiges Erbe. Beiträge zur abendländischen Liturgie und- und Frömmigkeitsgeschichte, Pieta Liturgica (Tübingen 2010) 268.

[15] cf. H. König, St. Jakobi in Stralsund, ein spätes Jakobus-Patrozinium, in: F. Biermann – M. Schneider – T. Terberger (Eds.), Pfarrkirchen in den Städten des Hanseraums. Beiträge eines Kolloquiums vom 10. bis 13. Dezember 2003 in der Hansestadt Stralsund. Archäologie und Geschichte im Ostseeraum 1 (Rahden/Westf. 2006) 89–100, 89.

[16] J. Petersohn, Der südliche Ostseeraum im kirchlich-politischen Kräftespiels des Reichs, Polens und Dänemarks vom 10. bis 13. Jahrhundert (Köln 1979) 238f.

[17] B. Kowalski, Widerstände, Visionen und Geistesführung bei Paulus, ZKTh 125, 2003, 387–410, 387–388.

[18] cf. J. Petersohn, Grundlegung einer Geschichte der mittelalterlichen Heiligenverehrung in Pommern. BDLG 97, 1961, 14–41, 34.

[19] the Vita written by Ebo II.5 (Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg, Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 229).

[20] M. Rębkowski, Die Christianisierung Pommerns. Eine archäologische Studie. Universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie 197 (Bonn 2011) 22.

[21] M. Rębkowski, Kamień we wczesnym średniowieczu. in: R. Gaziński (Eds.), Dzieje Kamienia Pomorskiego. Do 1945 roku (Wrocław 2024) 25–74, 55–56.

[22] M. Rębkowski – P. Romanowicz, The Church of St Nicholas, in: M. Rębkowski (Eds.), Lubin. Early Medieval Stronghold at the Mouth of the Oder River (Szczecin 2018) 185–191, 185.

[23] M. Rębkowski – P. Romanowicz, The Church of St Nicholas, in: M. Rębkowski (Eds.), Lubin. Early Medieval Stronghold at the Mouth of the Oder River (Szczecin 2018) 185–191, 188–189.

[24] cf. the Vita written by Ebo II.18 (Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg, Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 237).

[25] cf. the Vita from Prüfening Abbey II.19 (Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg, Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 167).

[26] M. Rębkowski, Die Christianisierung Pommerns. Eine archäologische Studie. Universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie 197 (Bonn 2011) 28.

[27] A. Heinz, Lebendiges Erbe. Beiträge zur abendländischen Liturgie und Frömmigkeitsgeschichte, Pieta Liturgica (Tübingen 2010) 275.

[28] Lexikon der Bibel und der Heiligen (2005) 246–247 s. v. Nikolaus (G. Duchet-Suchaux – M. Pastoureau) 246.

[29] cf. F. Biermann, Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern − die Missionsreisen und ihre Wirkung im archäologischen Bild, in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Eds.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee, Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 97–147, 98.

[30] The three oldest life descriptions do not mention the patron saint when referring to the church building.
e.g. the Vita written by Herbord II.17 (Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg, Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 367).

[31] M. Rębkowski, Die Christianisierung Pommerns. Eine archäologische Studie. Universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie 197 (Bonn 2011) 21.

[32] M. Rębkowski, Kamień we wczesnym średniowieczu. in: R. Gaziński (Eds.), Dzieje Kamienia Pomorskiego. Do 1945 roku (Wrocław 2024) 25–74, 56.

[33] M. Rębkowski, Die Christianisierung Pommerns. Eine archäologische Studie. Universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie 197 (Bonn 2011) 21–22.

[34] e.g. the Vita from Prüfening Abbey II.13 (Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg, Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 161).

[35] ibid.

[36] M. Dworaczyk, Die Adalbertkirche in Stettin (Szczecin), in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Eds.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee. Beiträge einer Tagung aus Anlass des 875. Todestages des Pommernmissionars vom 27. bis 29. Juni 2014 in Greifswald. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 163–170, 163.

[37] M. Dworaczyk, Die Adalbertkirche in Stettin (Szczecin). in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Eds.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee. Beiträge einer Tagung aus Anlass des 875. Todestages des Pommernmissionars vom 27. bis 29. Juni 2014 in Greifswald. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 163–170, 167–169.

[38] e.g. the Vita from Prüfening Abbey II.19 (Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg, Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 167).

[39] e.g. the Vita from Prüfening Abbey II.16 (Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg, Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 165).

[40] A. Holtz, Über den Standort der Michaelis-Kirche in Wollin. Monatsblätter der Gesellschaft für pommersche Kirchengeschichte und Altertumskunde 52/11, 1938, 238–242, 239f.

[41] cf. W. Filipowiak, Wolinianie. Studium osadnicze, Cz. 1: Materiały (Szczecin 1962) 322.

[42] cf. F. Biermann, Die Kirchen des Bischofs Otto von Bamberg in Pommern – ein Beitrag zur Frühgeschichte der Kirche St. Paul in Usedom und zur Lage der missionszeitlichen Sakralbauten im Odermündungsgebiet, in: T. Terberger (Eds.), Pfarrkirchen in den Städten des Hanseraums. Beiträge eines Kolloquiums vom 10. bis 13. Dezember 2003 in der Hansestadt Stralsund. Archäologie und Geschichte im Ostseeraum 1 (Rahden/Westf. 2006) 21–38, 29.; M. Rębkowski, Die Christianisierung Pommerns. Eine archäologische Studie. Universitätsforschungen zur Prähistorischen Archäologie 197 (Bonn 2011) 26.

[43] Primary source as specified inM. Rębkowski, Archäologische Zeugen der ersten Missionsreise Bischof Ottos in Pommern, in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Eds.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee. Beiträge einer Tagung aus Anlass des 875. Todestages des Pommernmissionars vom 27. bis 29. Juni 2014 in Greifswald. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 149–162, 154.

[44] M. Rębkowski – P. Romanowicz, The Church of St Nicholas, in: M. Rębkowski (Eds.), Lubin. Early Medieval Stronghold at the Mouth of the Oder River (Szczecin 2018) 185–191, 185.

[45] The three oldest life descriptions do not mention the patron saint when referring to Gradicia.
e.g. the Vita written by Herbord II.37 (Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg, Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 411).

[46] cf. M. Rębkowski, Archäologische Zeugen der ersten Missionsreise Bischof Ottos in Pommern, in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Eds.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee. Beiträge einer Tagung aus Anlass des 875. Todestages des Pommernmissionars vom 27. bis 29. Juni 2014 in Greifswald. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 149–162, 150 Abb. 1.; M. Rębkowski, Die Christianisierung Pommerns. Eine archäologische Studie. Universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie 197 (Bonn 2011), 26.

[47] e.g. the Vita written by Herbord II.38 (Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg, Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 413).

[48] cf. M. Rębkowski, Archäologische Zeugen der ersten Missionsreise Bischof Ottos in Pommern, in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Eds.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee. Beiträge einer Tagung aus Anlass des 875. Todestages des Pommernmissionars vom 27. bis 29. Juni 2014 in Greifswald. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 149–162, 150 Abb. 1.

[49] M. Rębkowski, Die Christianisierung Pommerns. Eine archäologische Studie. Universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie 197 (Bonn 2011) 26–27.

[50] e.g. the Vita written by Ebo II.18 (Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg, Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 237).

[51] M. Rębkowski, Die Christianisierung Pommerns. Eine archäologische Studie. Universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie 197 (Bonn 2011) 28.

[52] e.g. the Vita from Prüfening Abbey II.20 (Ed. L. Weinrich, Heiligenleben zur deutsch-slawischen Geschichte. Adalbert von Prag und Otto von Bamberg, Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 23 (Darmstadt 2005) 169).

[53] ibid., 29.

[54] In the case of the Usedom church, the patron saint cannot be found in the three oldest life descriptions. However, other indications make the St. Paul patrocinium appear plausible.
cf. F. Biermann – D. Forler, Die Burgstadt Usedom zu Zeiten Ottos von Bamberg – neue archäologische Untersuchungen. in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Eds.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee. Beiträge einer Tagung aus Anlass des 875. Todestages des Pommernmissionars vom 27. bis 29. Juni 2014 in Greifswald. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 171–194, 189.

[55] F. Biermann – D. Forler, Die Burgstadt Usedom zu Zeiten Ottos von Bamberg – neue archäologische Untersuchungen, in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Eds.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee. Beiträge einer Tagung aus Anlass des 875. Todestages des Pommernmissionars vom 27. bis 29. Juni 2014 in Greifswald. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017) 171–194, 189.

[56] In the case of the Wolgast church, the patron saint cannot be found in the three oldest life descriptions. However, other indications make the St. Peter patrocinium appear plausible.
F. Biermann, Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern – die Missionsreisen und ihre Wirkung im archäologischen Bild, in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Eds.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee. Beiträge einer Tagung aus Anlass des 875. Todestages des Pommernmissionars vom 27. bis 29. Juni 2014 in Greifswald. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017), 97–148, 106.

[57] F. Biermann, Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern – die Missionsreisen und ihre Wirkung im archäologischen Bild, in: F. Biermann – F. Ruchhöft (Eds.), Bischof Otto von Bamberg in Pommern. Historische und archäologische Forschungen zu Mission und Kulturverhältnissen des 12. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten der Ostsee. Beiträge einer Tagung aus Anlass des 875. Todestages des Pommernmissionars vom 27. bis 29. Juni 2014 in Greifswald. Studien zur Archäologie Europas 30 (Bonn 2017), 97–148, 106.

[58] In the case of the Gützkow church, the patron saint cannot be found in the three oldest life descriptions. However, other indications make the St. Nicholas patrocinium appear plausible.
F. Biermann, Die Kirchen des Bischofs Otto von Bamberg in Pommern – ein Beitrag zur Frühgeschichte der Kirche St. Paul in Usedom und zur Lage der missionszeitlichen Sakralbauten im Odermündungsgebiet, in: T. Terberger (Eds.), Pfarrkirchen in den Städten des Hanseraums. Beiträge eines Kolloquiums vom 10. bis 13. Dezember 2003 in der Hansestadt Stralsund. Archäologie und Geschichte im Ostseeraum 1 (Rahden/Westf. 2006) 21–38, 27.

[59] F. Biermann, Die Kirchen des Bischofs Otto von Bamberg in Pommern – ein Beitrag zur Frühgeschichte der Kirche St. Paul in Usedom und zur Lage der missionszeitlichen Sakralbauten im Odermündungsgebiet, in: T. Terberger (Eds.), Pfarrkirchen in den Städten des Hanseraums. Beiträge eines Kolloquiums vom 10. bis 13. Dezember 2003 in der Hansestadt Stralsund. Archäologie und Geschichte im Ostseeraum 1 (Rahden/Westf. 2006) 21–38, 27.